(4 credits) Prerequisites or co-requisite: ECN 610 and intermediate microeconomics. Prerequisites or co-requisite: ECN 610 and intermediate microeconomics. Consumer theory; choice and demand under certainty and uncertainty, intertemporal choice; production, input demand and cost, supply; and perfectly competitive markets and applications. Cross-listed with ECN 633.
(4 credits) Prerequisites or co-requisite: ECN 610 and intermediate microeconomics. Prerequisites or co-requisite: ECN 610 and intermediate microeconomics. Organization of firms and markets in perfectly competitive industries. Internal organizational strategies (scale and scope, make-or-buy, centralization vs. decentralization, etc.), external competitive strategies (pricing, product choice, advertising, entry and exit, R&D, etc.), and their mutual interdependence are analyzed. Cross-listed with ECN 635.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: ECN 610 and intermediate microeconomics. An analytical examination of the forces that determine the level of national income, employment, prices, and economic growth under the classical, Keynesian, and post-Keynesian assumptions; Ricardian equivalence, time inconsistency issue, growth models, macroeconomic policy. Cross-listed with ECN 643.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: ECN 733. Monetary systems; financial markets; financial intermediation; risk; term structure of interest rates; models of stock and bond prices; capital asset pricing model; financial derivatives; the efficient markets hypothesis; central banking; monetary theory. Cross-listed with ECN 654.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. The seminar focuses on a particular area of economics, and requires class presentations by students and out-of-class writing assignments, as well as other assignments chosen by the instructor. May be repeated with change of topic.
(2 credits) Trains participants to resolve disputes as trained mediators. Review of a six- phase process of mediation in which disputing parties isolate critical issues, identify commonalties, generate alternatives, and reach consensus. Focuses on practical skills and the understanding of theoretical and empirical bases of the technique. Includes lectures, demonstrations, skillbuilding exercises, role- playing, and group activities. Application of the procedure to varied settings is discussed.
(4 credits) Specific topic is included in the course schedule. Provides students with the opportunity to investigate a designated topic in-depth and/or to carry out a supervised investigation within the limits of the seminar title. Group meetings enhance discussion and problem exploration. May be repeated with change of topic. (offered infrequently).
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Permission of department chair. An independent project in a selected area of education; project must be approved by and arrangements made with permission of department chair, the advisor, and a supervising faculty member. Offered every semester.
(4 credits) Specific topic is included in the course schedule. Provides students with the opportunity to investigate a designated topic in-depth and/or to carry out a supervised investigation within the limits of the seminar title. Group meetings enhance discussion and problem exploration. The course may be repeated with different content areas (offered infrequently).
(3 credits) Focuses on issues related to the education of culturally and linguistically diverse children, gifted children, and children with special needs. Gender issues in education and the relation of diversity to all areas of the teaching-learning process are discussed. Course work involves the development of effective strategies for teaching all children about diversity and for promoting positive relationships among teachers, parents, and children. Required for early childhood teaching license, pre-kindergarten endorsement, and TESOL endorsement.
(3 credits) Emphasis on various aspects and phases of human growth and development from conception to adolescence, including physical/motor, socio-emotional, moral, and cognitive development. Attention is given to relationships among aspects of development and between development and school learning. Human Development option in the College core; required for early childhood teaching license.
EDC 509 - Secondary Methods for the Art Specialist
(3 credits) Class sessions, studio laboratory work, and school-site experiences that develop the necessary knowledge and competencies for planning, implementing, and evaluating art programs in the secondary school.
(3 credits) Explores theories, methods, and procedures underlying the development and design of instruction, with particular attention given to selected models of teaching and their practical application, strengths, and limitations. Other topics include the systematic analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation of instruction as a continuous integrated process; the importance of audience awareness and the learning environment in instruction planning; and the use of instructional technologies to enhance student learning and develop curricular materials.
EDC 512 - Instructional Development In Foreign Language Education
(4 credits) Aids practicing elementary and secondary educators in developing curriculum, objectives, classroom materials, and appropriate teaching methods. Students critically review current research and trends in relation to national and state standards for foreign language instruction.
EDC 513 - Instructional Development In English/Language Arts Education
(4 credits) Aids practicing elementary and secondary educators in developing curriculum, objectives, classroom materials, and appropriate teaching methods. Students critically review current research and trends in relation to national and state standards for instruction in the English language arts.
EDC 514 - Instructional Development In Art Education
(4 credits) Aids practicing elementary and secondary educators in developing curriculum, objectives, classroom materials, and appropriate teaching methods. Students critically review current research and trends in relation to national and state standards for instruction in the visual arts.
EDC 515 - Instructional Development In Mathematics Education
(4 credits) Aids practicing elementary and secondary educators in developing curriculum, objectives, classroom materials, and appropriate teaching methods. Students critically review current research and trends in relation to national and state standards for mathematics instruction.
EDC 517 - Instructional Development In Science Education
(4 credits) Aids practicing classroom teachers by providing strategies and tools for modifying commercial curricula, enhancing teaching methods, and adapting instructional technologies. Students critically review research and trends related to continuing issues in science education.
(2 credits) This course is designed to help teachers of mathematices use technology to increase student learning in mathematics. Course participants will use technology to explore the issues surrounding the classroom use of technology. Specifically, this course will help teachers develop knowledge of research and theories regarding teaching and learning mathematics using technology. The course will also help teachers develop proficiency in the appropriate application of various technologies to encourage students to develop greater conceptual understanding of mathematics and develop higher order thinking skills.
(3 credits) The course in Assessment, Diagnosis, and Evaluation in Mathematics will prepare P-6 Mathematics Specialist Endorsement candidates to be able to direct the alignment of curriculum with the state’s Academic Content Standards within and across grade levels. In addition, they will analyze and interpret data from student assessments for teachers, parents, and the community.
(3 credits) Prerequisites: Three years of successful experience in teaching mathematics.
Practicum in Mathematics Intervention is structured to provide P-6 mathematics teachers with necessary leadership experience for designing intervention programs for schools. In addition, the course helps the practicing teachers to create curriculum and instruction for students who are potentially at risk in learning mathematics. Also, the course stresses the practical application of theory and research to the planning and delivery, and evaluation of instruction.
EDS 513 - Secondary Language Arts Instruction & Assessment
(3 credits) Co-requisite: EST 572. Co-requisite: EST 572. Critical exploration and analysis of current developments in the teaching of secondary English with emphasis on student-centered methods that encourage integrated study of the language arts. Pragmatic and theoretical aspects of language, literature, and composition instruction are considered-especially as they apply to the selection of objectives, strategies, and materials for instruction and evaluation. Areas of study include reading and writing development, the writing process, the processes involved in reading literary works, oral language and listening-skill development, as well as formative and summative techniques for assessing pupil progress.
EDS 515 - Mathematics Education in the Secondary School
(4 credits) Co-requisite: EST 572. Co-requisite: EST 572. Traces the historical development of various fields of mathematics and provides opportunities for the prospective mathematics teacher to gain experience in preparing and teaching problem-centered lessons. Focuses on materials and strategies for teaching mathematics at the intermediate and secondary level. Also considered are student characteristics, teaching and learning styles, issues of equity and diversity, and constructivist theories of learning. Topics for discussion include issues associated with inquiry learning and changing instructional practices that provide a problem-rich environment for learning and the use of technology.
EDS 516 - Social Studies Education in the Secondary School
(3 credits) Co-requisite EST 572. Prerequisites: Minimum of 75% of social studies content courses completed, and completion of all education foundation and curriculum courses. Co-requisite EST 572. Explores concepts, purposes, and underlying assumptions of teaching social sciences; develops activities to improve intermediate and secondary students’ interest and competence in democratic citizenship in a pluralistic society; addresses interdisciplinary curriculum linkages.
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EDS 517 - Science Education in the Secondary School
(4 credits) Co-requisite: EST 572. Co-requisite: EST 572. Introduction to structure and function of science instruction in the secondary schools; provides background and principles of science education, including instructional planning, methods, assessment, materials, and philosophy for teaching science.
EEC 503 - Writing in Electrical and Computer Engineering
(1 credits) Prerequisites: Graduate standing. This course is designed to enhance the ability of students to write effectively on topics within the discipline of electrical and computer engineering. A substantial written report is one of the requirements. Students enrolled in EEC 503 must be concurrently enrolled in any graduate-level content-based ECE course. This excludes the following courses: Graduate Seminar (EEC 601/701), Electrical Engineering Internship (EEC 602/802), Master’s Thesis (EEC 699), Doctoral Research (EEC 895), and Doctoral Dissertation (EEC 899). After registering for EEC 503, students must obtain a written agreement from the instructor of the content-based course certifying that the instructor will serve as a grader of the writing required in EEC 503. The content course instructor, in consultation with the student, will determine the topic of the written report. This concurrent enrollment requirement can be waived with the prior permission of the instructor.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Fundamental concepts in linear system theory: matrix algebra, linear vector space, linear operator; linearity, causality, relaxedness, and time invariance. Input-output and state-space models. Solutions of linear dynamic equation and impulse response. Characteristics of linear systems: controllability, observability, and stability.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. General concepts of probability and random variables, including random experiments, inequalities, joint distributions, functions of random variables, expectations, and the law of large numbers. Basic concepts of random processes and their properties are introduced. Markov process, linear systems with stochastic inputs, and power spectra are presented.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. The objective of this course is to expose graduate students to the bourgeoning field of nanotechnology. The course is designed for students from different disciplines of engineering, science and related fields. The course surveys various areas of nanotechnology, including nanoscale materials, fabrication of nanostructures and their characterization techniques, nanoscale and molecular electronics, nanoelectromechanical systems, nanobiotechnology, and safety issues.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. This course is an introduction to the fields of biosensors, bioelectronics and bioMEMS. The course is designed for students from different disciplines of engineering, science and related fields. It surveys various areas of nanotechnology, including immobilization of biological components to transducers, electrochemical, optical and piezoelectric biosensors, sensor fabrication, miniature sensors and other sensors for biomedical applications, biofuel cells, bioMEMS, and related topics.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: Graduate standing. Software process, methods, and tolls; phases of software development process including requirements analysis, engineering, and software project management, metrics, and quality assurance.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Software system formal mechanisms, including specification, validation, and verification. Formal specification with algebraic specification and abstraction/reasoning about system properties. Evolution of formalism to model a certain system. Proof of models using analytical methods and experimental methods using simulators.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Data mining process, data mining tasks including classification, clustering, association, and prediction; methods and procedures for data mining using machine learning, neural networks, and database techniques; data mining tools, systems, and applications.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Modeling of DSP operations using discrete-time signals and systems: difference equations, Z-transforms, Fourier methods. Signal sampling (A/D) and reconstruction (D/A); digital filters; sample rate converters and oversampling; DFT and spectrum estimation; selected applications. Out-of-class projects completed on DSP equipment in lab.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: Graduate standing . This course traces the idea of feedback control throughout history and is made broadly accessible to engineering and science majors alike at both undergraduate and graduate levels. By going back in time and trying to understand the problems that precipitated the great discoveries in controls, we strive to grasp the thought process of the great minds in the history of controls, leading to, hopefully, better understanding and appreciation of the art and science of problem solving in the area of automatic control systems.
(4 credits) Prerequisite:Graduate standing. Fundamental laws of electromagnetic fields: Gauss’s, Faraday’s, Ampere’s, Biot-Savart’s, Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws. Maxwell’s equations as applicable to finite and infinitesimal regions in three-dimensional space and their engineering implications. Source distribution and boundary value engineering problems and their analytical or numerical solution. Electromagnetic wave propagation. Applications to the design of transmission lines, waveguides, and antennas.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Methods of electromagnetic coupling between devices, shielding, grounding, frequency spectra of unintentional radiation sources, radiation coupling between distant devices, absorption and reflection losses in nonmagnetic shielding, high-permeability shields, shielding penetration by wires and cables, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations and measurements.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Power system components modeling: transformers, generators, transmission lines. Power flow, economic scheduling of generation, power systems faults, and transient stability.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 470. Advanced course in power electronics: switching function representation of converter circuits (DC-DC, AC-DC, DC-AC, and AC-AC), resonant converters, adjustable torque drives, field-oriented motor control, residential and industrial applications, utility applications, power supply applications.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. Overview of modern digital design methodology and CAD tools, VHDL description for combinational and sequential logic, VHDL description for state machine, VHDL description for RTL design, synthesis and implementation using CPLD/FPGA devices. No graduate credit for students who have completed EEC 480.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate standing. The design of high-performance computer systems, with emphasis on cost-performance tradeoff, performance evaluation, instruction set design, hardwired control-unit design, micro- and nano-programming, pipelining, memory hierarchy, and I/O interfaces.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Graduate Standing. Provides a comprehensive overview of computer networks. Topics include network architectures, communication protocols; data link control, medium access control, LANS and MANS: network layer, TCP/IP; and network security.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 580. Experiments and projects utilizing VHDL, modern EDA software tools and CPLD/FPGA devices to design, synthesize, simulate, implement and test combinational circuits, sequential circuits, register-transfer-level systems and processor.
(1 credits) Prerequisites: Graduate standing, completion of at least one full time academic year in MSEE, MSSE or Doctor of Engineering program, and permission of advisor. Provides students with practical experience in electrical, computer or software engineering. Students will write progress reports on a regular basis in addition to writing a project report at the end of the course. May be taken up to two times for credit.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 521, Software Engineering, or permission of instructor.
Software system formal mechanisms, including specification, validation, and verification. Formal specification of concurrent systems using temporal logics. Evolution of formalism to model a certain system. Use of model checking and program verification tools for verification of concurrent software.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 521. Software errors, bug reports, test case design, white box testing, black box testing, unit testing, integration testing, system testing, regression testing, test planning and management.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 521. An in-depth look at software design. Study of design patterns, frameworks, and architectures. Survey of current middleware architectures. Design of distributed systems using middleware. Component based design. Measurement theory and appropriate use of metrics in design. Designing for qualities such as performance, safety, security, reusability, reliability, etc. Measuring internal qualities and complexity of software. Evaluation and evolution of designs. Basics of software evolution, reengineering, and reverse engineering.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: MSSE core courses (EEC 521, EEC 623, CIS 634, CIS 635). Students will apply software enginnering principles, methods and tools learned in their course work in building realistic software systems. Students work as small teams in solving real world problems. Students will meet regularly in class and teams meet separately.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Systematic approach of applying modern control design methods, such as digital control, adaptive control, and heuristic methods to practical design problems. Practical approaches to typical industrial problems, such as nonlinearity, control saturation, parasitic effects, chattering, etc. Useful stability analysis techniques, such as the Circle Criterion and Popov’s Criterion. Polynomial matrix interpolation and its applications in control and system identification. Design examples and assignments.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Development of dynamic system models from basic laws of physics and identification of model parameters from system input-output measurements. Frequency and time domain models. Design of persistently exciting input signals.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. State-space and frequency domain analysis and design of nonlinear feedback systems. Methods include Liapunov’s stability analysis, singular perturbations, describing functions, Popov’s and circle criteria. Feedback linearization, variable structure, and sliding mode control.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Introduction to the principles and methods of the optimal control approach: performance measures; dynamic programming; calculus of variations; Pontryagin’s Principle; optimal linear regulators; minimum time and minimum fuel problems; steepest descent; and quasilinearization methods for determining optimal trajectories.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Artificial intelligence techniques applied to control system design. Topics include fuzzy sets, artificial neural networks, methods for designing fuzzy-logic controllers and neural network controllers; application of computer-aided design techniques for designing fuzzy-logic and neural-network controllers.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: EEC 510 and graduate standing. This course provides a comprehensive overview of MEMS technique and MEMS control. Topics include MEMS fabrication processes, MEMS sensors and actuators, Dynamic modeling of MEMS devices, control, signal processing, and electronics for MEMS, and case studies of MEMS.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: MCE 441/541 or EEC 510 or exposure to undergraduate controls, with instructor consent. Study of robotic manipulator systems, with strong emphasis on dynamics and control. Energy-based nonlinear models. Motion control using PD, inverse dynamics and passivity. Geometric nonlinear control applied to robotic manipulators.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 512. The classical theory of detection and estimation of signals in noise. Bayesian hypothesis testing, minimax hypothesis testing, Neyman-Pearson hypothesis testing, composite hypothesis testing, signal detection in discrete time, sequential detection. Nonparametric and robust detection parameter estimation, Bayesian estimation, maximum likelihood estimation, Kalman-Bucy filtering, linear estimation, Wiener-Kolmogorov filtering, applications to communications.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 512. Basic digital communication techniques, including formatting and baseband transmission, bandpass modulation and demodulation, and synchronization. Advanced modulation techniques, such as power-efficient modulation, spectrally efficient modulation, coded modulation, and spread-spectrum modulation. Introduction to communication link analysis and block codes.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 651. This course introduces the theory of error control coding for digital transmission in communications. Topics include groups, fields, GF(2), linear block codes, cyclic codes, BCH codes, Reed-Solomon codes, convolutional codes, maximum likelihood decoding of convolutional codes, Viterbi algorithm, sequential decoding of convolutional codes, continuous phase modulation codes, trellis coded modulation, and turbo codes.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 512. This course presents a coherent and unifying view of the concept of information, conveying a unique understanding of how it can be quantified and measured. Within this context, concepts and principles of information theory as they relate to applications in communication theory, statistics, probability theory, and the theory of investment are introduced.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 651. Cellular mobile communication concepts and system design fundamentals, mobile radio propagation models, large-scale path loss, small-scale fading, multipath, modulation techniques for mobile radio, equalization, diversity, channel coding, speech coding, multiple access, wireless networking, wireless systems, and standards.
(4 credits) Prerequisite:EEC 514 or undergraduate course in solid state electronics.
The objective of this course is to provide the students with an in-depth understanding of the principles of modern solid state electronic devices. Emphasis is on nanoscale devices and devices made of nanoscale materials. The course begins with a brief review of quantum theory of solids, properties of solid nanostructures, and fundamental principles of conventional electronic devices. In-depth discussion on specific nanoscale devices allows students to gain knowledge in the operational principles of state-of-the-art technology in electronic devices, including hot electron transistors, high electron mobility transistors, resonant tunneling diodes, single electron transistors, and molecular devices.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 571. Steady-state control of power flow. Optimal generating unit commitment. Frequency/active-power control, voltage/reactive power control. Automation generation of interconnected power systems.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 571. Nonlinear dynamic modeling and control of interconnected power systems in a deregulated environment. Voltage collapse, transient phenomena. Power system stability enhancements, flexible FACTS devices.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 474 or EEC 572. Power electronic converters in combination with electric machines. Field-oriented induction machine control; stability of induction machines under sine-wave supply; voltage source inverter drives and current source inverter drives.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 581. Architecture analysis and design from a systems perspective. Topics include memory system design, pipeline design techniques, vector computers, multiple processor systems, and multiprocessor algorithms.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 581. Overview of distributed computing systems. Topics include networking, interprocess communication, remote procedure calling, name services, distributed time management, and file services. Some new technologies, including ATM networking, internetworks, multicast protocols, microkernel-based distributed operating systems, and distributed-shared memory, are discussed.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 581. Overview of parallel system organizations and parallel algorithms. Topics include memory structures for parallel systems, interconnection networks, SIMD/MlMD processing, parallel programming languages, mapping and scheduling, parallel algorithms, and case studies.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 581. This course provides a comprehensive overview of mobile computing, which is likely to become a pervasive part of future computing infrastructures with technical advancements in wireless communication, mobility, and portability. Topics include mobile TCP/IP protocols, mobile ad hoc networks, mobile application architectures, system issues for mobile devices, and some pervasive and ubiquitous computing examples.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 584. This course provides an extensive overview of secure and dependable distributed computing systems. Topics include computer and network security, faults models, process and data replication, reliable group communication, message logging, checkpointing and restoration, Byzantine fault tolerance and intrusion tolerance.
EEC 696 - Individual Problems In Electrical Engineering
(4 credits) Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. Directed study on an individual problem under the supervision of a faculty member. Total credits for this course are limited to eight credit hours. Graded S/F.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 521, Software Engineering, or permission of instructor.
Software system formal mechanisms, including specification, validation, and verification. Formal specification of concurrent systems using temporal logics. Evolution of formalism to model a certain system. Use of model checking and program verification tools for verification of concurrent software.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: EEC 440 and EEC 510. Systematic approach of applying modern control design methods, such as digital control, adaptive control, and heuristic methods, to practical design problems. Students learn how to deal with typical industrial problems, such as nonlinearity, control saturation, parasitic effects, chattering, etc. Useful stability analysis techniques, such as the Circle Criterion and the Popov’s Criterion. Polynomial matrix interpolation and its applications in control and system identification. Design examples and assignments.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Development of dynamical system models from the basic laws of physics and identification of model parameters from system input-output measurements. Frequency and time domain models.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. State-space and frequency domain analysis and design of nonlinear feedback systems. Methods include Liapunov’s stability analysis, singular perturbations, and describing functions. Feedback linearization, variable structure, and sliding mode control.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Introduction to the principles and methods of the optimal control approach; performance measures; dynamic programming; calculus of variations; Pontryagin’s Principle; optimal linear regulators; minimum time and minimum fuel problems, steepest descent, and quasilinearization methods for determining optimal trajectories.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 510. Artificial intelligence techniques applied to control system design. Topics include fuzzy sets, artificial neural networks, methods for designing fuzzy-logic controllers and neural network controllers; application of computer-aided design techniques for designing fuzzy-logic and neural-network controllers.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: EEC 510 and graduate standing. This course provides a comprehensive overview of MEMS technique and MEMS control. Topics include MEMS fabrication processes, MEMS sensors and actuators, Dynamic modeling of MEMS devices, control, signal processing, and electronics for MEMS, and case studies of MEMS.
(4 credits) Prerequisites: MCE 441/541 or EEC 510 or exposure to undergraduate controls, with instructor consent. Study of robotic manipulator systems, with strong emphasis on dynamics and control. Energy-based nonlinear models. Motion control using PD, inverse dynamics and passivity. Geometric nonlinear control applied to robotic manipulators.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 512. The classical theory of detection and estimation of signals in noise. Bayesian hypothesis testing, minimax hypothesis testing, Neyman-Pearson hypothesis testing, composite hypothesis testing, signal detection in discrete time, sequential detection. Nonparametric and robust detection, parameter estimation, Bayesian estimation, maximum likelihood estimation Kalman-Bucy filtering, linear estimation, Wiener-Kolmogorov filtering, applications to communications.
(4 credits) Prerequisite: EEC 512. Basic digital communication techniques, including formatting and baseband transmission, band pass modulation and demodulation, and synchronization. Advanced modulation techniques, such as power efficient modulation, spectrally efficient modulation, coded modulation, and spread-spectrum modulation. Introduction to communication link analysis and block codes.